A Web-Based Physical Activity Promotion Intervention for Inactive Parent-Child Dyads: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Low levels of physical activity are associated with numerous adverse health outcomes, yet sedentary lifestyles are common among both children and adults. Physical activity levels tend to decline steeply among children aged between 8 and 12 years, even though children's behavioral patterns are largely governed by familial structures. Similarly, parents' activity levels have been generally reported as lower than those of nonparents of comparable age. For this reason, family-based physical activity promotion interventions are a potentially valuable and relatively underresearched method for mitigating physical activity declines as children develop into adolescents and for increasing physical activity in parents. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to assess the efficacy, feasibility, and acceptability of a novel theory-based web-based physical activity promotion intervention among parent-child dyads in Finland who do not meet physical activity recommendations at baseline. METHODS: Participants (target N=254) will be recruited from the general population using a panel company and advertisements on social media and randomly assigned to either an immediate intervention group or a waitlist control group. The intervention consists of 4 web-based group workshops over the course of 10 weeks, web-based tasks and resources, and a social support chat group. Data on physical activity behavior and constructs from the integrated behavior change model will be collected through self-report surveys assessing physical activity, autonomy support, autonomous motivation, attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, intention, self-monitoring, habit, and accelerometer measurements at baseline, post intervention, and 3 months post intervention. Exit interviews with participants will assess the feasibility and acceptability of the intervention procedures. RESULTS: This study will reveal whether the intervention changes leisure-time physical activity among intervention participants relative to the control group and will examine the intervention's effects on important theoretical predictors of physical activity. It will also yield data that can be used to refine intervention materials and inform further implementation. Trial recruitment commenced in September 2023, and data collection should be completed by December 2024. CONCLUSIONS: The planned intervention has potential implications for both theory and practice. Practically, the use of an entirely web-based intervention may have scalable future uses for improving physical activity in 2 key populations, while also potentially informing on the value of dyadic, family-based strategies for encouraging an active lifestyle as an alternative to strategies that target either parents or children independently. Further, by assessing change in psychological constructs alongside potential change in behavior, the intervention also allows for important tests of theory regarding which constructs are most linked to favorable behavior change outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT06070038; https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06070038. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/55960.

Three reasons why parental burnout is more prevalent in individualistic countries: a mediation study in 36 countries.

PURPOSE: The prevalence of parental burnout, a condition that has severe consequences for both parents and children, varies dramatically across countries and is highest in Western countries characterized by high individualism. METHOD: In this study, we examined the mediators of the relationship between individualism measured at the country level and parental burnout measured at the individual level in 36 countries (16,059 parents). RESULTS: The results revealed three mediating mechanisms, that is, self-discrepancies between socially prescribed and actual parental selves, high agency and self-directed socialization goals, and low parental task sharing, by which individualism leads to an increased risk of burnout among parents. CONCLUSION: The results confirm that the three mediators under consideration are all involved, and that mediation was higher for self-discrepancies between socially prescribed and actual parental selves, then parental task sharing, and lastly self-directed socialization goals. The results provide some important indications of how to prevent parental burnout at the societal level in Western countries.

"Women easily feel that they have lost a year if they don't ski faster": Finnish ski coaches' discursive constructions of gendered dual career pathways.

OBJECTIVES: Earlier qualitative researchers studying athletes' dual careers (DCs) have shown that sociocultural discourses on gender are ingrained in DC policies and practices, creating gender inequalities and hierarchies. In this study, we aimed to extend this body of research by examining how Finnish elite youth ski coaches discursively construct athletes' education and gender in their talk and coaching practices. Similarly, we examined how coaches' beliefs about athletes' holistic development are interlinked with broader sociocultural discourses on gender. DESIGN: Qualitative study. METHODS: We conducted semi-structured interviews with 10 Finnish ski coaches (seven male, three female) aged 25-62 years (M = 38.5), and then analyzed the data using reflexive thematic analysis, interpreted through a feminist poststructuralist lens. FINDINGS: Coaches' discursive practices regarding education depended on their athletes' ages. For athletes in secondary education, the coaches predominantly drew on DC discourses that emphasized the compatibility of sports and education, but for athletes transitioning to senior-level sports, they drew on dominant performance discourses, believing that athletes at the senior level should prioritize their sports. Moreover, coaches discursively constructed athletic development as especially important for female athletes, who were perceived as less capable of excelling in sports and therefore needing to invest in multiple careers. CONCLUSIONS: By drawing on gender stereotypes and binary understandings of gender, the coaches discursively reproduced gender hierarchies and unequal power relations in sports. These gendered discourses influence athletes' DC aspirations and the gendering of DC pathways.

Child perceived motor competence as a moderator between physical activity parenting and child objectively measured physical activity.

This longitudinal study aimed to examine how physical activity parenting (PAP) directly predicted objectively measured children's moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentariness over a three-year transitional period from early to middle childhood, and second, whether the children's perception of motor competence (PMC) mediated or moderated the influence of PAP to children's MVPA or sedentariness. At time 1 (T1), PAP and children's (N = 396, mean age 5.80, SD 1.04) PA were assessed by parental questionnaire. Three years later, at time 2 (T2), children's (N = 396, mean age 8.80, SD 1.04) PMC was measured by a validated pictorial scale, and MVPA and sedentariness were measured by accelerometers. All the analyses were conducted using the Mplus statistical package (Version 8.4). The models were adjusted for the following covariates: children's PA (T1), gender (T1), age (T1), mean accelerometer measurement in hours per day (T2), and parents' education level (T1). Results showed that PAP at T1 did not significantly predict level of MVPA or sedentary time at T2 and, therefore, PMC did not mediate the PAP-children's MVPA or sedentary time relationship either. However, PMC significantly moderated the relationship between PAP and MVPA but not between PAP and sedentary time. The results suggested that parental support positively predicts children's MVPA among children with low PMC but not among children with high PMC. This unique finding proposes that family-based PA interventions could benefit from screening of children with low PMC and provision of PA counselling to their parents.

The role of career adaptability resources in dual career pathways: A person-oriented longitudinal study across elite sports upper secondary school.

OBJECTIVES: Obtaining education is an important milestone in athletes' preparation for their professional career after sport. Literature indicates that combining school and sport is not an easy task for many aspiring youth athletes. It has been proposed that career adaptability, which refers to psychosocial resources enabling individuals to solve complex occupational transitions, present and anticipated vocational development tasks, and career related challenges could be a relevant concept for applied work with student-athletes. In this study, we examined whether there are distinct developmental profiles of career adaptability among adolescent athletes across the upper secondary school years. We also investigated the associations between career adaptability and sport withdrawal and academic achievement. DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 391 Finnish-speaking student-athletes completed the questionnaire on career adaptability (Career Adapt-Abilities Scale - Dual Career Form; Ryba & Aunola, 2015; Ryba et al., 2017) at the beginning and end of upper secondary school. The participants' background information about their sport participation and grade point average were collected upon completion of each grade of upper secondary school. The data were analysed using cluster analysis, cross-tabulation, and one-way analysis of variance. RESULTS: Four distinct adaptability profiles were identified: higher adaptability, lower adaptability, increasing adaptability, and decreasing adaptability. Higher and lower adaptability profiles showed stable levels of adaptability across time, whereas the adaptability level either increased or decreased in the other two profiles. Student-athletes with a lower career adaptability profile were overrepresented among those who withdrew from competitive sports, and they reported lower grade point averages than those with higher scores of career adaptability. CONCLUSIONS: High scores of career adaptability were associated with high grades, whereas low scores of career adaptability were associated with low grades and a probability to withdraw from competitive sport. Therefore, it is recommended that career adaptability be considered as important self-regulation resources for sustaining dual career pathways over time.

Student Athletes' Causal Attributions for Sport and School Achievement in Relation to Sport Dropout and Grade Point Average.

The present study longitudinally examined stability and change in the attributional profiles of Finnish student athletes (n = 391) in upper secondary sport schools. Moreover, it examined the extent to which these profiles, and changes in them, were associated with athletes' level of sport competition and school achievements and dropouts at the end of upper secondary sport school. Using latent profile analysis, five different and highly stable attributional profiles were identified for student athletes: (a) depressive (6.9%), (b) athletic self-serving (23.0%), (c) average (16.4%), (d) learned helplessness (30.9%), and (e) responsible (22.8%). The results further showed that over the 3-year study period, the responsible attributional style, wherein individuals take responsibility for successes and failures, predicted student athletes' subsequent high grade point average and low sport dropout rates even after controlling for the impacts of their earlier grade point average, gender, and type of sport.

The role of self-esteem on fear of childbirth and birth experience.

OBJECTIVE: Fear of childbirth (FOC), also referred to as tokophobia, can have detrimental consequences for a woman's well-being during pregnancy and for their subjective birth experience. However, it is unknown what role self-esteem plays in the relationship between FOC and the experience of childbirth. This study investigates the relation between FOC and the birth experience, and the role of self-esteem in that relation. METHODS: We studied 125 nulliparous and parous Finnish women from their third trimester of pregnancy to 4-8 weeks postpartum. Path analysis with MLR estimation was conducted using MPlus to predict the childbirth experience according to prior self-esteem and fear of childbirth as well as their interaction. Also, age and parity were included as predictors of the birth experience, as well as their interactions with self-esteem. FOC was measured with the Wijma Delivery Expectancy/Experience Questionnaire - version A (W-DEQ-A), self-esteem with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), and birthing experience with the Delivery Satisfaction Scale (DSS). RESULTS: We found that self-esteem moderated the association between fear of childbirth and the subjective birth experience: the lower the self-esteem, the stronger the negative connection between FOC and the birth experience; and, reversely, the higher the self-esteem, the weaker the connection between FOC and the birth experience. CONCLUSIONS: The results highlight intra-group differences between fearful women and contribute to theory formation. They can be used in clinical practice and when planning interventions to reduce negative birth experiences.

Resilience and Parental Burnout Among Finnish Parents During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Variable and Person-Oriented Approaches.

During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) crisis, different personality characteristics may have influenced parental well-being in different ways. In the present study, we combined variable and person-oriented approaches and examined relationships between resilience, parental burnout, and perfectionism during the lockdown. We first used structural equation modeling to assess the paths between variables. We then used latent profile analysis to examine different profiles of parents based on resilience, perfectionism, and symptoms of parental burnout. Finally, we examined how these profiles differ in terms of relevant background variables. The results showed that resilience predicted parental burnout negatively even after controlling for multidimensional perfectionism. Parents' age, children's age, children's special needs, and the increase in time spent with children due to lockdown contributed independently to burning out as a parent. Three profiles were found: a resilient profile, perfectionist profile, and burned-out profile. Resilient parents were likely to be men, older, and with less financial difficulties than parents in the other two profiles, and less likely to spend increased time with their children due to lockdown than the burned-out parents. Perfectionist parents, in turn, had older children than the burned-out parents did. These results suggest that resilience may help parents overcome burnout at times of crisis.

Associations between student-athletes' self-esteem and career adaptability across the high school years.

The key challenges in sustainable elite sports concern young athletes´ holistic development. Consequently, preparation for dual careers has been recommended to enhance athletes' well-being and equip them for life after sports. The aim of this study was to examine the developmental associations between self-esteem and career adaptability among adolescent athletes across the high school years and investigate the role of gender in these developmental trajectories. A total of 391 student-athletes were followed up four times from the beginning of high school (T1) to its end (T4) using the Dual-Career Form of the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale and the Self-Esteem Questionnaire. The results indicated that individual differences in student-athletes' self-esteem and career adaptability were relatively stable across the high school years and were thus modeled via the between-persons factors capturing differences between individuals across time. The results further showed that the overall levels of self-esteem and career adaptability were positively associated. Males showed higher overall levels of career adaptability and self-esteem than females. This study suggests that it is important to facilitate youth athletes' self-regulation resources by involving them in vocational developmental tasks. Further, gender differences should be considered when supporting student-athletes' development.

Development and validation of the Brief Parental Burnout Scale (BPBS).

Since parental burnout can have detrimental consequences for parents, couples, and children, easy-to-use, reliable, and valid practical tools for the early detection of parental burnout are required. We developed and validated a brief scale to identify burned-out parents and parents at burnout risk. In Study 1, we developed the 5-item Brief Parental Burnout scale (BPBs) based on the gold standard measure of parental burnout, the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA). We applied Item Response Theory Graded Response Model (GRM) analyses on the data of 1,725 Finnish parents. Compared against the PBA total score, the five selected items showed both high sensitivity and specificity in screening parental burnout. As expected, burned-out parents and those at burnout risk according to the BPBs displayed higher depressive symptoms, lower self-esteem, and more frequent sleep disruptions than non-burned-out parents. In Study 2, we tested the sensitivity and specificity of the BPBs by using both the BPBs and the PBA as independent assessment tools in a sample of 1,088 Finnish parents. In Study 3, the high sensitivity and specificity of the BPBs found in Study 2 were replicated in an independent sample of 104 Belgian parents. We further demonstrated the concurrent validity of the BPBs test score interpretations by showing that burned-out parents, or those at burnout risk, reported higher child neglect and parental violence than non-burned-out parents. Because of its user-friendliness and the strong psychometric properties of its test score, the BPBs is a good candidate to use as a screening tool for parental burnout. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Construct validity and reliability of the physical activity parenting questionnaire for children (PAP-C).

BACKGROUND: Children's perception of parenting is hypothesised to significantly affect their physical activity (PA). This study aimed to examine construct validity, factorial invariance and reliability of a new tool: Physical Activity Parenting questionnaire for Children (PAP-C). METHODS: PAP-C comprised 22 items hypothesised to cover 3 theory-guided factors of physical activity parenting (PAP)-namely, structure for activity, autonomy support and involvement. Construct validity and internal consistency of PAP-C were tested using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and composite reliability in a sample of Finnish first, second- and third graders (n = 456; mean age 8.77 ± 0.84 years, girls 51.1%). Factorial invariance of PAP-C across grade levels was investigated using sequential multigroup CFA. Intra-class correlation (ICC) coefficients of the sum factors were calculated in a sample of children who completed a 4-week PAP-C retest (n = 450; mean age 8.83 ± 0.87 years, girls 48.0%). RESULTS: A first-order 3-factor model of the structure for activity, autonomy support and involvement, with 20 items (two items removed), showed an acceptable fit. The model demonstrated configural, metric, and scalar invariance across grade levels. Composite reliabilities indicated moderate-to-good internal consistency (from .74 to .87) for the factors. ICCs (from .494 to .750, p < .001) showed moderate to excellent test-retest stability for all grade levels. CONCLUSIONS: PAP-C can be considered to be a promising tool for investigating 7-10-year-old children's perceptions of PAP.

Parental Burnout Around the Globe: a 42-Country Study.

High levels of stress in the parenting domain can lead to parental burnout, a condition that has severe consequences for both parents and children. It is not yet clear, however, whether parental burnout varies by culture, and if so, why it might do so. In this study, we examined the prevalence of parental burnout in 42 countries (17,409 parents; 71% mothers; Mage = 39.20) and showed that the prevalence of parental burnout varies dramatically across countries. Analyses of cultural values revealed that individualistic cultures, in particular, displayed a noticeably higher prevalence and mean level of parental burnout. Indeed, individualism plays a larger role in parental burnout than either economic inequalities across countries, or any other individual and family characteristic examined so far, including the number and age of children and the number of hours spent with them. These results suggest that cultural values in Western countries may put parents under heightened levels of stress. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42761-020-00028-4.

The interplay between maternal homework involvement, task-avoidance, and achievement among adolescents.

This study examined three aspects of maternal homework involvement (i.e., the quantity, quality, and source of initiative) and their direct and indirect associations with adolescents' task-avoidant behavior in homework situations and academic achievement. The sample consisted of Finnish mothers and their adolescents who were transitioning from primary to lower secondary school. Mothers rated the quantity of their homework involvement (i.e., monitoring and help), quality of their homework involvement (i.e., autonomy support and psychological control), and source of initiative (i.e., mother- vs. adolescent-initiated monitoring and help) at the beginning of Grade 6. They also reported on adolescents' task avoidance in homework situations at the beginning of Grade 7. Information on adolescents' academic achievement in the spring terms of Grades 5 and 7 was obtained from school registers. The results showed that high maternal psychological control and mother-initiated monitoring were associated with poorer subsequent academic achievement directly and indirectly through higher levels of adolescent task avoidance. Moreover, poor prior academic achievement was associated with higher levels of subsequent task avoidance directly and indirectly through high maternal psychological control and mother-initiated monitoring. Overall, the results highlight the importance of bringing mothers' knowledge and awareness to their self-initiated and controlling involvement practices and helping them to support adolescents' learning and motivation in more optimal ways. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Early Antecedents of School Burnout in Upper Secondary Education: A Five-year Longitudinal Study.

School burnout symptoms are prevalent among upper secondary education students, but thus far, very little is known about the background of these symptoms. The present study examined the extent to which school burnout symptoms (i.e., exhaustion and cynicism) among upper secondary education students have their roots in primary and lower secondary school and whether early antecedents of school burnout symptoms could be identified. The sample consisted of 1544 Finnish students followed up four times (Time1-Time 4) from the end of primary school (T1; mean age 12.74 and range 11.71-14.20) to the first year of upper secondary education (T4; mean age 16.66 and range 15.55-18.39). The results of latent growth curve modeling showed that school burnout symptoms in upper secondary education were predicted by the level of school burnout symptoms at the end of primary school and by an increase in these symptoms across the transition from primary school through lower secondary school. In addition, psychological well-being, academic skills, and gender were found to contribute to the prediction of school burnout symptoms. Overall, the present study suggest that potential warning signs of school burnout should not be ignored and attention should be directed to earlier education phases.

Intra-individual dynamics of lesson-specific engagement: Lagged and cross-lagged effects from one lesson to the next.

BACKGROUND: Student engagement denotes active participation in academic work through commitment and involvement in learning tasks (Appleton et al., 2006, Journal of School Psychology, 44, 427). This study looks at questions such as whether engagement experiences in one lesson have an effect on the next lesson. In the present study, process-oriented analyses were conducted to examine lower secondary school students' engagement experiences and the stability of those experiences from one lesson to the next. AIMS: (1) To what extent are students' engagement experiences, in terms of behavioural and cognitive engagement, emotional engagement, and disaffection, stable from one lesson to the next (autoregressive cyclic effects)? (2) What are the cross-lagged relationships (dynamic effects) between engagement experiences from one lesson to the next? SAMPLE: The sample consisted of 56 Finnish lower secondary school students. The students provided ratings of their engagement experiences at the end of each lesson for one week (5 days, 975 ratings). Each student rated, on average, 17.4 lessons (SD = 5.67). METHODS: We specified multilevel dynamic structural equation models with random slopes. RESULTS: The models showed small significant sustainability in behavioural and cognitive engagement, emotional engagement, and disaffection from one lesson to the next, regardless of subject matter and teacher continuity. Higher behavioural and cognitive engagement in a lesson also had a self-diminishing effect on disaffection. CONCLUSIONS: The present study provides valuable information to teachers by showing that an experience in one lesson can have an effect on subsequent ones.

Sport burnout inventory-Dual career form for student-athletes: Assessing validity and reliability in a Finnish sample of adolescent athletes.

BACKGROUND: The pressure of pursuing an athletic career simultaneously with education may set adolescent student-athletes at risk for sport and school burnout. Although the 2 life domains of student-athletes are strongly intertwined, so far, there has not been an instrument for investigating sport burnout parallel to school burnout. The aim of the present study was to introduce a sport burnout measure for adolescents in a dual career context and investigate its validity and reliability by using confirmatory factor analysis. METHODS: The participants were 391 student-athletes (51% females) who filled in a questionnaire of sport burnout and background variables in the beginning of upper secondary school. RESULTS: A 3-factor model or a second-order-factor model described the data better and gave better reliability indices than a 1-factor model. The 3 dimensions of sport burnout were shown to be separate, but closely related constructs. Evidence for convergent and discriminant validity was obtained by correlating the 3 sport burnout dimensions with depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and sport task values. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that Sport Burnout Inventory-Dual Career Form (SpBI-DC) is a valid and reliable instrument for investigating sport burnout among adolescent student-athletes.

Validity of the Finnish version of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA).

The aim of the present study was to validate the Finnish version of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) using data from 1,688 Finnish parents (91% mothers) living in Finland with at least one child living at home. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the theoretical four-factor structure of the PBA - emotional exhaustion in one's parental role, contrast with previous parental self, feelings of being fed up with one's parental role, and emotional distancing from one's children. Internal consistency for the total scale was excellent (Cronbach's alpha ≥ 0.90) and for the subscales from acceptable (alpha ≥ 0.70) to excellent. The results further demonstrated strict factorial invariance of PBA across genders and educational status groups. Finally, the PBA and its four subscales correlated as expected with the three criteria variables (depressive symptoms, sleep disruptions, and self-esteem), the latent factors of all three criteria variables being still clearly unique and separate constructions from parental burnout factors.

"It Is Like Compulsory to Go, but It Is still pretty Nice": Young Children's Views on Physical Activity Parenting and the Associated Motivational Regulation.

Physical activity parenting (PAP) is consistently correlated with children's physical activity (PA). Children's perception of PAP has garnered little attention given that it mediates the relationship between PAP and child PA outcomes. This study aimed to examine 7-10-year-old children's perspectives on PAP practices and how they relate to their motivational regulation of PA. A total of 79 children 7-10 years of age participated in 19 semi-structured focus group interviews. Through qualitative theory-guided content analysis, using frameworks of parenting dimensions and self-determination theory (SDT), we found that children's perceptions of high responsiveness and low demandingness in PAP-according to SDT, autonomy support, involvement, and structure-were associated with satisfaction of all three psychological basic needs-autonomy, competence, and relatedness. In contrast, perceptions of high demandingness and low responsiveness in PAP, i.e., coercive control, were associated with dissatisfaction of autonomy need. However, perceptions of high demandingness and high responsiveness in PAP, specifically parental expectations and facilitation of PA, were associated with satisfaction of competence need. It seems possible to identify different types of PAP practices associated with children's motivation for PA. Different forms of parental demandingness with differing motivational outcomes were uniquely identified from the children's perceptions of PAP.

Antecedents and Consequences of Student-Athletes' Identity Profiles in Upper Secondary School.

This study examined the identity profiles that upper secondary school Finnish student-athletes show and the extent to which these profiles were associated with their athletic and academic achievements and withdrawal from sports and school. A total of 391 adolescent athletes (51% female) completed assessments of student and athletic identity four times during their time in upper secondary school. Using growth mixture modeling, three groups were identified: dual identity (77%), changing identity (5%), and athletic identity (18%). The higher the academic achievement was at Time 1, the more likely the athletes were to show a dual identity than an athletic identity profile. Similarly, athletes with dual identity showed higher subsequent academic achievement at Time 4 than those with an athletic identity profile. Finally, athletes with dual identity were more likely and athletes with athletic identity less likely to withdraw from sport activities during upper secondary school than would be expected by chance.

Parental Teaching of Reading and Spelling Across the Transition From Kindergarten to Grade 1.

We investigated the longitudinal links between parental teaching of reading and spelling and children's word reading and spelling skills. Data of 244 Lithuanian parent-child dyads were analyzed, who were followed across three time points: end of kindergarten (T1; M age = 6.88; 116 girls), beginning of Grade 1 (T2), and end of Grade 1 (T3). The children's word reading and spelling skills were tested, and the parents answered questionnaires on the frequency with which they taught their children reading and spelling. Overall, the results showed that the parents were responsive to their children's skill levels across the domains of reading and spelling and across time (i.e., the transition from kindergarten to Grade 1 and across Grade 1). However, differences between the domains of reading and spelling were also observed. In particular, in the domain of reading and across the transition from kindergarten to Grade 1, the parents responded to their children's skill levels by increasing the time spent teaching children with poor word reading skills, and decreasing the teaching time for the children with good word reading skills. In contrast, as spelling skills may require more time to develop, parents maintained similar frequencies of teaching spelling across the transition to Grade 1 for all children, and only parents of good spellers taught less spelling at the end of Grade 1 than parents of children with poor and average word spelling skills.